18–19 Dec 1961 — Some 45,000 Indian troops entered Goa, Daman and Diu after fourteen years in which negotiation had been refused. Salazar had ordered his forces to fight to the last man, but the governor-general surrendered within two days. About 22 Indians and 30 Portuguese were killed. The action ended 451 years of Portuguese rule.
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19 DECEMBER 1961 · INDIAN INDEPENDENCE & PARTITION, 1857–1964
The moment in context
The leaders of independent India had claimed to speak for a whole people. The constitution that took effect on 26 January 1950 put that claim to a demanding test: it gave every adult over twenty-one a vote, although most Indians could not read. Its drafting committee was chaired by B. R. Ambedkar, a Dalit from a caste Hindu custom had branded “untouchable”. The constitution made India a republic of citizens, established rights enforceable in court, abolished untouchability in Article 17, and reserved parliamentary seats for the lowest castes and tribal peoples, much like a modern quota. As the country’s supreme law, it set both the powers of government and the claims citizens could make against it.
From India under Nehru, chapter 15 of Indian Independence & Partition, 1857–1964 (MAY 1964).
Why it happened — Partition’s legacy: a state that feared its own divisions. Partition shaped the constitution’s balance of power. The founders had seen political mobilization around identity help break the country in 1947,…
The turn — Madras, 15 December 1952. Nehru had delayed linguistic states for five years when Potti Sriramulu, a former follower of Gandhi, used a fast unto death to press for Andhra.…
What it changed — A democracy that held. Elections had to become a habit before the first one could count as the beginning of a durable democracy. India held its second and third general…
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